TransitWiki - User contributions [en]

Deep Discount Group Pass

2014-05-28T18:34:10Z

Jlarose:

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
[[File:Ecopass.jpg|framed|right|A sample of Denver RTD's EcoPass]]
== Introduction ==
Deep discount group passes (DDGP) can be offered by transit agencies as an incentive for increasing ridership among large groups of typically centralized people while boosting agency revenue. DDGP programs are commonly offered to employers and universities. The employer pays for the privilege of offering its employees unlimited use of the transit system. The cost assessed by the transit agency to the employer would be significantly less than the employer buying passes for every single employee. However, it still generates new revenue for the transit agency because the lure of "free" transit incentivizes the employees to ride when previously very few probably used transit. Since effectively all of those riders are new, even if they are not individually paying the full fare, the partnership between the transit agency and the employer generates new revenue.

In setting fares, agencies are typically focused on the individual existing rider, whereas DDGP shifts the focus to groups of potential riders<ref>Nuworsoo, Cornelius, “Deep Discount Group Pass Programs: Innovative Transit Finance,” Berkeley Planning Journal, 18 (2005), pp. 151-165.</ref>. Adjusting the base fare for service affects individual choice about how many trips they will make; raising the fare causes price-sensitive riders to make fewer trips while lowering the fare encourages people to ride more frequently. A group pass program encourages a large number of people to make effectively unlimited trips, but is typically extended to groups who might not have used transit at all. If these people were not riders previously, each one represents a revenue gain even though the agency sells the pass at a discount.

=== Benefits ===
DDGP programs have benefits for both the pass purchaser (employers, universities) and the transit agency. The employer can consider and market the pass program as an employee benefit, enhancing the image of the company as a progressive and environmentally-conscious business.
Consider also that if most of these new riders have a good experience with the transit system, they may encourage others to try the service as well. Thus a DDGP can serve as a cost-effective marketing program as well.

=== Common Characteristics ===
DDGP programs typically define an eligible group, such as all benefit-eligible employees, all currently enrolled students, all city employees, etc. In some cases the employer pays for the cost of the pass and makes them available to eligible participants at no charge. In other cases the pass discount is negotiated between the employer and the transit agency with eligible persons paying the cost of the pass individually. For example, at UCLA, students pay each quarter for the discounted bus pass; while a significant savings over other options for regular users, it still requires students to pay for the pass individually. Other variations include the unlimited ride benefit at no cost to the user while the group at large pays a fee; this system is in place at the University of New Hampshire, where students and faculty pay a fee to fund the transit system and may simply present their university ID to board the bus at no charge.

Passes often have a photo ID to deter fraudulent use, given the high value of the benefit. DDGP typically confer unlimited use of the system to the pass holder for a year, although universities may divide pass eligibility by academic semester or quarter.

Some programs include a [[Guaranteed Ride Home|guaranteed ride home]] component.

== Experience ==
=== Denver EcoPass ===
The Denver Regional Transportation District (RTD) was a pioneer in DDGP programming with the [http://www.rtd-denver.com/EcoPass.shtml EcoPass]. Participating employers are required to offer the pass to all full-time employees. The pass cost is determined by the employer location, number of employees, and transit options nearby. This flexibility allows RTD to charge more for employers downtown versus those in free-parking-rich suburbs who may have less incentive to participate. While pass holders receive unlimited use of most RTD services, there is an upcharge for the airport express buses and the pass is not valid on other specialized services at all.

Denver RTD also offers other variations on the EcoPass program to provide as broad coverage as possible. A more flexible version allows employers to choose the level of transit service employees may take advantage of under the pass, for example.

=== University of Washington ===
=== California: Berkeley and UCLA ===

== References ==
<references />
Brown, Jeffrey and Daniel Baldwin Hess, and Donald Shoup. “Fare-Free Public Transit at Universities: An Evaluation,” Journal of Planning Education and Research, 23(1), 2003 pp. 69–82.

Guaranteed Ride Home

2014-05-28T18:25:30Z

2014-05-16T01:26:16Z

Jlarose:

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT

== Introduction ==
[[File:Expresslanes.jpg|thumbnail|right|View of Los Angeles Metro ExpressLanes (credit: LACMTA)]]
Congestion pricing is a concept applied to roadways experiencing high traffic volumes in order to motivate better economic decision making among drivers and improve traffic flow. When a roadway is carrying more vehicles than it was designed for, traffic becomes congested, decreasing travel times and reliability of travel. Applying a pricing scheme, such as a toll, which increases along with congestion (and likewise decreases), motivates some drivers to adjust their travel behavior. Drivers unwilling to pay the higher price will choose to drive at other times, thus maintaining or improving overall congestion conditions.

Congestion pricing can be used to generate revenue in support of enhanced public transit service. Recently implemented projects demonstrate that congestion pricing is an effective tool both for managing vehicle throughput and motivating solo drivers to choose improved transit options.

== Congestion pricing basics ==
Congestion pricing encompasses several different strategies for applying a price to heavily traveled road networks. The basic concept is to raise the price of travel as the number of travelers increases, especially when the level of traffic begins to decrease the time and reliability of travel. In the United States, "high occupancy toll" (HOT) lanes has recently become one of the most common forms of congestion pricing<ref>Federal Highway Administration. "Congestion Pricing: A Primer". October 2008. http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop08039/cp_prim1_00.htm</ref>. HOT lanes are typically converted from existing high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, retaining the basic concept of free travel by carpools and buses, while adding the option for solo drivers to "buy in" to the lane. This strategy allows motorists who value a faster and more reliable trip on the highway to pay for such an alternative. HOT lanes do not replace the "general purpose" lanes, meaning people can continue to drive for free on the same roadway. True congestion pricing on HOT lanes requires that the price paid by solo drivers increase as the volume of cars increases. In some examples, the policy guiding price response is based on maintaining a minimum average speed in the HOT lanes, such as 55mph. If so many vehicles are buying into the HOT lanes that traffic begins to back up, the price may climb significantly, or in some cases, the HOT lanes may revert temporarily back to HOV-only. There are several ways this can be accomplished, which are explored in the examples below.

Other congestion pricing tools besides HOT lanes include "cordon pricing", variable tolls across an entire roadway, and certain non-tolling strategies. Cordon pricing has been used in London since 2003, in which most vehicles entering the central city must pay a charge between 7:00am and 6:30pm Monday through Friday. The revenues from the cordon price were directed towards improved public transport, and together have reduced traffic by as much as 15% without significant increases on surrounding local roads. Cordon pricing is not currently used anywhere in the United States, although a plan had been developed to enact cordon pricing around Manhattan (CITE).

Variable tolls across an entire roadway is also not a common strategy in the United States. A newer and more innovative strategy was piloted by the state of Oregon, which charges drivers based on vehicle miles traveled (VMT) as a replacement for the fuel tax. The fuel tax is rapidly becoming an ineffective source of revenue as newer cars become more efficient or entirely electric, meaning less fuel is sold and thus less revenues raised. (CONTINUE and CITE)

=== Equity questions ===
An oft-cited argument against congestion pricing, specifically HOT lanes, is that they disproportionately hurt low-income travelers. Many politicians in opposition to HOT programs call them "Lexus-lanes", claiming that the toll lanes can only be used by the rich and thus do not provide the equal opportunity for low-income drivers to reap the benefit of the improved travel time. However, this is a spurious argument on several counts. First, an HOT lane is always an ''HOV'' lane, allowing carpoolers to enjoy the reliably fast lanes for free. Carpooling is a proven and effective strategy for all commuters to save money, and the HOT lane should prioritize carpooling before toll-paying motorists. Second, studies of existing variable-priced lanes such as State Route 91 in Orange County, California, demonstrate that even low-income drivers take advantage of the HOT lanes when they have a highly time-sensitive trip. For many users, the penalty for being late to work or picking up a child from daycare would be more expensive than the one-way toll(CITE). Third, revenues from HOT lanes can be directed to public transit improvements along the same corridor. Increased frequency of service funded by HOT lanes can motivate solo drivers at all income levels to switch to a transit commute. Finally, as the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LACMTA) demonstrated, policies and programs can be enacted to support qualifying low-income users with toll credits, account fee waivers, or even direct subsidies<ref>LACMTA. "Metro ExpressLanes Project: Final Low-Income Assessment". 2010. http://media.metro.net/projects_studies/expresslanes/images/low_income_draft_final_report.pdf</ref>.

=== Directing revenue to transit ===

== Examples of Congestion Pricing ==
=== California ===
=== Elsewhere ===
http://thesource.metro.net/2012/11/08/expresslanes-basics-reviewed/
http://thesource.metro.net/2013/03/20/first-preliminary-report-issued-on-performance-of-expresslanes-on-the-110-freeway/
http://thesource.metro.net/2014/04/21/metro-board-to-consider-extending-expresslanes-on-10-and-110-freeways-beyond-january-2015/
"Congestion Pricing: A Primer on Institutional Issues". http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop13034/fhwahop13034.pdf
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Tolling/SR167HotLanes/publications.htm
"Transit and Congestion Pricing: A Primer". http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop09015/cp_prim7_00.htm
== References ==
<references />

2014-04-30T20:59:42Z

Jlarose:

Congestion pricing

2014-04-30T20:29:47Z

Jlarose:

2014-04-22T21:40:29Z

Jlarose:

Reliability of service

2014-04-22T21:15:25Z

Frequent bus network map

2014-04-11T01:49:37Z

Jlarose:

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
== Introduction ==
[[File:Kcmetromap.png|thumbnail|right|King County Metro's frequency map in 2012. ]]
Most agencies likely publish a system or network map of their bus service. A system map can be helpful in familiarizing the customer with area coverage, but can also paint a misleading picture of actual availability when not all lines run comparable schedules. Many agencies have routes which only operate at certain times of day, such as peak period or overnight, which might appear on the system map alongside routes which run all day. A "frequent network map" includes only routes which run on a consistent and high frequency, visualizing both actual connections and the highest level of mobility on the system.

== Layers of Service ==
A standard system map can be misleading when it includes every route on the system. Some routes may only operate during peak periods, nighttime, or weekends, for example. Including these routes alongside those that run a regular frequency all day misleadingly represents coverage that might not exist or imply route connections that are impossible to make.

The "frequent network" is made up only of bus routes which run regularly throughout the entire service day. Walker also defines this network as routes running every 15 minutes or more frequently<ref>Walker, Jarrett. Human Transit (blog) "The Case for Frequency Mapping" http://www.humantransit.org/2010/08/basics-the-case-for-frequency-mapping.html. 6 August 2010</ref>. However, even small agencies with twenty, thirty, or sixty-minute headways system-wide can take advantage of the principle of differentiating maps by "all day service" and others. Even small agencies can have routes which operate only at specific times or on specific days, such as a Wednesday "Shopper Shuttle". Including these services on the map might be well-intentioned, but will mislead customers to assume it runs like the rest of the system. Notes alongside the map can help, but customers will miss notes. The route could be differentiated with a different style of line, or excluded from the system map.

In 2012, King County metro released a new system map which does include all services (including light rail alongside bus and ferry routes), but differentiates routes between frequent, peak period only, and all-day infrequent. The "rapid" routes stand out in bold, eye-catching red lines. The all-day frequent routes are in strong black lines and numbers, while peak-only service is in a faded blue. The visual distinction makes the difference between service level and geographic coverage very clear and understandable for the customer.

== Further Reading ==
Walker, Jarrett. "Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives." Chapter 7. 2012.

<references />

Frequent bus network map

2014-04-11T01:49:03Z

Jlarose: /* Layers of Service */

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
== Introduction ==
Most agencies likely publish a system or network map of their bus service. A system map can be helpful in familiarizing the customer with area coverage, but can also paint a misleading picture of actual availability when not all lines run comparable schedules. Many agencies have routes which only operate at certain times of day, such as peak period or overnight, which might appear on the system map alongside routes which run all day. A "frequent network map" includes only routes which run on a consistent and high frequency, visualizing both actual connections and the highest level of mobility on the system.

== Layers of Service ==
A standard system map can be misleading when it includes every route on the system. Some routes may only operate during peak periods, nighttime, or weekends, for example. Including these routes alongside those that run a regular frequency all day misleadingly represents coverage that might not exist or imply route connections that are impossible to make.

The "frequent network" is made up only of bus routes which run regularly throughout the entire service day. Walker also defines this network as routes running every 15 minutes or more frequently<ref>Walker, Jarrett. Human Transit (blog) "The Case for Frequency Mapping" http://www.humantransit.org/2010/08/basics-the-case-for-frequency-mapping.html. 6 August 2010</ref>. However, even small agencies with twenty, thirty, or sixty-minute headways system-wide can take advantage of the principle of differentiating maps by "all day service" and others. Even small agencies can have routes which operate only at specific times or on specific days, such as a Wednesday "Shopper Shuttle". Including these services on the map might be well-intentioned, but will mislead customers to assume it runs like the rest of the system. Notes alongside the map can help, but customers will miss notes. The route could be differentiated with a different style of line, or excluded from the system map.

[[File:Kcmetromap.png|thumbnail|right|King County Metro's frequency map in 2012. ]]
In 2012, King County metro released a new system map which does include all services (including light rail alongside bus and ferry routes), but differentiates routes between frequent, peak period only, and all-day infrequent. The "rapid" routes stand out in bold, eye-catching red lines. The all-day frequent routes are in strong black lines and numbers, while peak-only service is in a faded blue. The visual distinction makes the difference between service level and geographic coverage very clear and understandable for the customer.

== Further Reading ==
Walker, Jarrett. "Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives." Chapter 7. 2012.

<references />

File:Kcmetromap.png

2014-04-11T01:47:39Z

Jlarose:

Frequent bus network map

2014-04-11T01:45:50Z

Jlarose: /* Introduction */

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
== Introduction ==
Most agencies likely publish a system or network map of their bus service. A system map can be helpful in familiarizing the customer with area coverage, but can also paint a misleading picture of actual availability when not all lines run comparable schedules. Many agencies have routes which only operate at certain times of day, such as peak period or overnight, which might appear on the system map alongside routes which run all day. A "frequent network map" includes only routes which run on a consistent and high frequency, visualizing both actual connections and the highest level of mobility on the system.

== Layers of Service ==
A standard system map can be misleading when it includes every route on the system. Some routes may only operate during peak periods, nighttime, or weekends, for example. Including these routes alongside those that run a regular frequency all day misleadingly represents coverage that might not exist or imply route connections that are impossible to make.

The "frequent network" is made up only of bus routes which run regularly throughout the entire service day. Walker also defines this network as routes running every 15 minutes or more frequently<ref>Walker, Jarrett. Human Transit (blog) "The Case for Frequency Mapping" http://www.humantransit.org/2010/08/basics-the-case-for-frequency-mapping.html. 6 August 2010</ref>. However, even small agencies with twenty, thirty, or sixty-minute headways system-wide can take advantage of the principle of differentiating maps by "all day service" and others. Even small agencies can have routes which operate only at specific times or on specific days, such as a Wednesday "Shopper Shuttle". Including these services on the map might be well-intentioned, but will mislead customers to assume it runs like the rest of the system. Notes alongside the map can help, but customers will miss notes. The route could be differentiated with a different style of line, or excluded from the system map.

In 2012, King County metro released a new system map which does include all services (including light rail alongside bus and ferry routes), but differentiates routes between frequent, peak period only, and all-day infrequent. The "rapid" routes stand out in bold, eye-catching red lines. The all-day frequent routes are in strong black lines and numbers, while peak-only service is in a faded blue. The visual distinction makes the difference between service level and geographic coverage very clear and understandable for the customer.

== Further Reading ==
Walker, Jarrett. "Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives." Chapter 7. 2012.

<references />

Frequent bus network map

2014-04-08T23:07:07Z

Jlarose:

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
== Introduction ==
Most agencies likely publish a system or network map of their bus service. A system map can be helpful in familiarizing the customer with area coverage, but can also paint a misleading picture of actual availability. Many agencies have routes which only operate at certain times of day, such as peak period or overnight, which might appear on the system map alongside routes which run all day. A "frequent network map" includes only routes which run on a consistent and high frequency, visualizing both actual connections and the highest level of mobility on the system.
== Layers of Service ==
A standard system map can be misleading when it includes every route on the system. Some routes may only operate during peak periods, nighttime, or weekends, for example. Including these routes alongside those that run a regular frequency all day misleadingly represents coverage that might not exist or imply route connections that are impossible to make.

The "frequent network" is made up only of bus routes which run regularly throughout the entire service day. Walker also defines this network as routes running every 15 minutes or more frequently<ref>Walker, Jarrett. Human Transit (blog) "The Case for Frequency Mapping" http://www.humantransit.org/2010/08/basics-the-case-for-frequency-mapping.html. 6 August 2010</ref>. However, even small agencies with twenty, thirty, or sixty-minute headways system-wide can take advantage of the principle of differentiating maps by "all day service" and others. Even small agencies can have routes which operate only at specific times or on specific days, such as a Wednesday "Shopper Shuttle". Including these services on the map might be well-intentioned, but will mislead customers to assume it runs like the rest of the system. Notes alongside the map can help, but customers will miss notes. The route could be differentiated with a different style of line, or excluded from the system map.

In 2012, King County metro released a new system map which does include all services (including light rail alongside bus and ferry routes), but differentiates routes between frequent, peak period only, and all-day infrequent. The "rapid" routes stand out in bold, eye-catching red lines. The all-day frequent routes are in strong black lines and numbers, while peak-only service is in a faded blue. The visual distinction makes the difference between service level and geographic coverage very clear and understandable for the customer.

== Further Reading ==
Walker, Jarrett. "Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives." Chapter 7. 2012.

<references />

Frequent bus network map

2014-04-08T23:06:41Z

Jlarose:

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
== Introduction ==
Most agencies likely publish a system or network map of their bus service. A system map can be helpful in familiarizing the customer with area coverage, but can also paint a misleading picture of actual availability. Many agencies have routes which only operate at certain times of day, such as peak period or overnight, which might appear on the system map alongside routes which run all day. A "frequent network map" includes only routes which run on a consistent and high frequency, visualizing both actual connections and the highest level of mobility on the system.
== Layers of Service ==
A standard system map can be misleading when it includes every route on the system. Some routes may only operate during peak periods, nighttime, or weekends, for example. Including these routes alongside those that run a regular frequency all day misleadingly represents coverage that might not exist or imply route connections that are impossible to make.

The "frequent network" is made up only of bus routes which run regularly throughout the entire service day. Walker also defines this network as routes running every 15 minutes or more frequently<ref>Walker, Jarrett. Human Transit (blog) "The Case for Frequency Mapping" http://www.humantransit.org/2010/08/basics-the-case-for-frequency-mapping.html. 6 August 2010</ref>. However, even small agencies with twenty, thirty, or sixty-minute headways system-wide can take advantage of the principle of differentiating maps by "all day service" and others. Even small agencies can have routes which operate only at specific times or on specific days, such as a Wednesday "Shopper Shuttle". Including these services on the map might be well-intentioned, but will mislead customers to assume it runs like the rest of the system. Notes alongside the map can help, but customers will miss notes. The route could be differentiated with a different style of line, or excluded from the system map.

In 2012, King County metro released a new system map which does include all services (including light rail alongside bus and ferry routes), but differentiates routes between frequent, peak period only, and all-day infrequent. The "rapid" routes stand out in bold, eye-catching red lines. The all-day frequent routes are in strong black lines and numbers, while peak-only service is in a faded blue. The visual distinction makes the difference between service level and geographic coverage very clear and understandable for the customer.

== Further Reading ==
Walker, Jarrett. "Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives." Chapter 7. 2012.

Frequent bus network map

2014-04-08T17:26:59Z

Jlarose: Created page with "THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT Jarret Walker's concept of a frequent network map"

THIS ARTICLE IS IN DEVELOPMENT
Jarret Walker's concept of a frequent network map

Alternative fuel vehicles

2014-04-07T17:38:00Z

Jlarose: Created page with "'''This article is in development''' == Introduction == Public transit is often called upon as a measure to reduce environmental impacts of travel, both by consolidating trave..."

FTA Procurement

2014-04-01T18:52:48Z

Jlarose:

'''This article is in progress'''
== Introduction ==
The Federal Transit Administration (FTA) sets specific requirements and provides guidance on how transit agencies spend Federal funds. FTA grants and accounting is handled differently at every agency; this article will not review best practices for accounting. It is intended to provide a review of grant programs and resources for procurement best practices.

== Training ==
Any agency staff member involved in, or expecting to be involved in procurement should attend the National Transit Institute (NTI) [http://ntionline.com/courses/courseinfo.php?id=21 Procurement Series] of trainings. The series is divided into a progression of four multi-day courses. NTI offers the courses on an occasional basis in different regions around the country. The initial course is the most crucial for newcomers to Federal Transit procurement, covering topics such as procurement methods, how procurement processes are organized in an agency, and how to appropriately manage a third-party procurement.

NTI now offers a course on [http://ntionline.com/courses/courseinfo.php?id=209 Procurement for Small and Medium Transit Systems]. The course is limited to agency representatives who receive 5307 funds and operate less than 50 vehicles or agencies receiving 5310 or 5311 funds.

=== Materials ===
The [http://www.fta.dot.gov/grants/13054_6037.html Best Practices Procurement Manual] (BPPM) is provided by FTA and covers the spectrum of procurement requirements set out in FTA Circular 4220.1. As of this writing, the FTA circular version is [http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/FTA_Circular_4220.1F.pdf 4220.1F], last revised in 2008. The circular provides guidance on contracting with third parties (in other words, procurement) using FTA grant funds. Unfortunately, the circular has not been updated for the most recent version of Federal transportation legislation ([[MAP-21]]). The BPPM was last updated in 2005.

== Procurement Planning ==
Larger agencies with major projects programmed may find that multi-year procurement planning is essential to manage multi-year contracts. The procurement officer (or the staff member responsible for procurement as part of their duties) should handle planning of procurements based on identified needs of all departments. In other words, the various departments (operations, maintenance, training) should regularly track and identify purchasing needs - the procurement staff should not be identifying purchasing needs for mechanics. However, the procurement officer should work with departments to regularly collect and assess purchasing needs and may find that some needs in multiple departments can be served by a single procurement, for example. Without careful planning, agencies can miss opportunities for cost-effective purchasing.

=== Internal Control ===
One of the most important aspects of handling public funds is a system of checks and balances to prevent any one staff member from controlling spending without oversight. For example, if any one staff member at an agency has the ability to draft specifications, solicit for bids, and award contracts, they are able to spend Federal funds as they see fit. This could easily lead to abuse of power in unnecessary purchases or favoritism for certain bidders. A program manager should work along with the procurement officer to prepare specifications for bid and oversee contracts. The procurement officer should ensure that specifications developed by departments are not restrictive and meet FTA regulations. The disbursement of funds should be overseen by the agency finance staff, who ensure that the all parts of the procurement are in agreement (in other words, the executed contract and invoice are for the same product and agreed to price). Entrusting various aspects of the procurement process to different staff and departments reduces the risk of inappropriate practices.

== Types of Contracts ==
* Supplies, services, equipment, construction
* Legal and associated services
* Employment
* Real Estate
* Intergovernmental Agreements, Joint Procurements and Piggybacking
* Subgrants
* Equipment Leases
* Revenue
* Transit Oriented Joint Development
* Disposition of Surplus
* Operating Assistance, Preventative Maintenance, CMAQ, JARQ
* E-Commerce

== Solicitation and Selection ==
Newcomers to FTA procurement may be unsure of how to determine the best type of contract solicitation for a given purchase. It is not necessarily as simple as "always use a sealed bid for __ type of purchase," but understanding the characteristics of solicitation can help staff choose the right method to achieve the best value for the agency. A solicitation is not an obligation for the agency to spend money - agencies can conduct a solicitation and ultimately choose not to award any contract. However, conducting a solicitation properly is a time-consuming process, so having a well-planned procurement before entering the solicitation phase is best to ensure time and money is not wasted.

All purchases at any level require the grantee to determine if the price for the good or service is ''fair and reasonable''.

=== Micro and Small Purchases ===
There are two different requirements for relatively small purchases to lessen the burden of procurement, but even micro-purchases must adhere to Federal regulation and require some documentation. A '''micro-purchase''' is any contract amounting to less than $2,500. Any contract between $2,500 and $100,000 must adhere at least to '''small purchase procedures'''; however, agency discretion or policy may lead to other solicitation methods for some or all contracts under $100,000. Purchases under $100,000 are not required to meet "Buy America" regulations.

Micro-purchases can be made without obtaining competitive quotes as long as the price is determined to be fair and reasonable, meaning the agency does not have to solicit and document multiple price quotes. Fair and reasonable determination can be done by comparing phone quotes for the product against previous purchases, or doing a brief phone or email solicitation of prices from local vendors. The purchasing officer can use a basic form documenting these comparisons. Except for the requirements of the "Davis-Bacon" act for construction contracts over $2,000, no Federal clauses are required for micro-purchases. Thus, micro-purchases require very minimal documentation. Micro-purchases also should be equitably split amongst suppliers across the region, possibly on a regular rotation. FTA recommends that the purchasing rotation and pricing be documented to monitor distribution and fair pricing.

==== Combining Micro-Purchases ====
FTA warns agencies not to divide up related contracts (in quantity, or across time periods) in order to keep award amounts under $100,000. FTA staff review procurements as part of Triennial Reviews and look for evidence of agencies inappropriately dividing contracts to take advantage of small purchase requirements instead of meeting regular procurement requirements. The procurement officer should review purchasing plans from all departments to determine if several micro-purchases, or repetitive requisitions could be combined into a larger procurement for more competitive pricing and more efficient purchasing. In the short run, buying small orders of supplies as they are needed may appear to be the most efficient method. However, tracking the history of repetitive purchases can demonstrate the potential for time and money savings by creating a formal procurement for a supplier contract. While a larger purchase is more work up-front, it has the potential to save more time that is harder to track spread out among frequent, repetitive purchases. A larger contract also has the potential for obtaining a better purchase price, saving the agency money as well as time. Using real history on purchasing can give the agency confidence on its future purchasing needs.

==== Small Purchases ====

=== Sealed Bids and Competitive Proposals (RFPs, IFBs) ===

== Common Procurement Concerns ==
Length of contract
Termination